“How can colour be used in teaching materials, both digital and analogue, to improve student lived experience, attention and attainment?”
My name is Julia Redman, I am a lecturer on the BSc and MSc Fashion Management at LCF, Unit Leading on Product Management, Sustainable Design Management & Leadership & Organisation. I also teach on units including Supply Chain Management, Responsible Management and Strategic Brand Management.
I have over 20yrs of experience as a buyer, and latterly, 10yrs as Head of Buying, for a variety of British brands and retailers, bringing the real life, lived experience of a career in the fashion industry into the classroom. As a creative employed in fashion, colour forms a very important element in my daily life – I am a very visual/practical learner, and this project was developed out of my desire to understand better how colour can help bring a greater level of inclusivity to our students learning capability.
Over the past 5yrs as a lecturer at LCF, I have noticed an increase in the level of neurodiversity amongst the students that I am teaching, and this has led me to question many of the processes and common practices that we employ in our teaching, and how we could improve them to help all of our students achieve their goals.
The following charts identify that there are a growing number of students declaring specific learning difficulties, but the greatest increase is coming from students declaring “other or multiple impairments”. The data has limitations in it’s use due to a lack of specifics, however, the implications are that we are seeing greater numbers of students with complex needs and will therefore need to be more pro-active and adaptable in our teaching methods.
UAL Equality, Diversity & Inclusion Report 24/25
The consideration of colour in teaching content is just one way in which, with some small changes, we can create wide ranging impact to drive up attention, concentration and attainment, improving the overall lived experience of both neurodiverse and neurotypical students, including those with multiple, or indeed complex, intersectional requirements.
This Action Research Project will go some way to identifying some of the key issues faced by multiple stakeholders around the university, in relation to the use of colour in teaching materials. The research sought simple solutions, through both primary and secondary research, that can be implemented to resolve some of these issues.
“Around one in five people are neurodivergent”(Neurodiversityhub, 2025)
In considering the subject for my Action Research Project, I was inspired by the struggles identified by several of my students. I am teaching cohorts which include students with both hearing and visual impairment, dyslexia, anxiety, ADHD, narcolepsy and many for whom English is a second language. Having recently lived through the realisation of an ADHD diagnosis with my own daughter (at the age of 27), I have been prompted to question everything about the way in which we teach such diverse cohorts of students. These lived experiences have inspired my research, with the aim of ensuring that every student has the best possible experience in the context of mine and my colleagues teaching practice.
I began to address one of these issues by including automated captioning in all of my lecture and seminar content, which actually led to a much broader impact than I was anticipating. Originally, I implemented this to help a deaf student, when her BSL interpreters were not in attendance. However, feedback from some of the international students, for whom English is a second language, indicated that the captions had helped them too, making it possible to read along as well as listen to the content.
Having realised that making a small change could create a fundamentally important impact, I was able to share the outcome with many of my fellow lecturers, creating a ripple effect across the course, for the benefit of as many students as possible. Having discovered the positive power of making one small change, I was inspired to look at other ideas that would be relatively easy to implement, and could have a wide ranging impact, turning my attention from sound to vision.
We use on screen visual presentations for most content, and I was struck by the fact that, in the context of a creative arts university, we are encouraged, as tutors, to use a black and white template for teaching materials. Obviously, this is tweaked and adapted to suit the style and content of each individual lecturer, but the default is still black type on a white background. Why is this, if it is not necessarily the best method of visual communication for learning amongst diverse groups of students?
Beginning my research I came across the work of Helen Irlen, founder of the Irlen Method, which was developed to “use colored overlays and filters to improve the brain’s ability to process visual information”(Irlen, 2025). Irlen Syndrome is often misdiagnosed as dyslexia or other learning disabilities such as ADD or ADHD. The Irlen Method implementation of coloured overlays and filters has the potential to normalise the brains ability to process written information, and has been shown to improve the following:
Print clarity & stability
Comprehension
Reading speed
Reduced eye strain and fatigue
Headaches and migraines
Light sensitivity
Other published work around the use of colour in reading & learning materials includes Arnold J. Wilkins book, Reading Through Colour, in which he states that “people who suffer visual stress may have poor assimilation of reading content. They may tire quickly and the quality of their work may deteriorate rapidly. Concentration may be poor and attention span short”.
Professor Wilkins has also contributed to research carried out at Cambridge University.
“Our research has shown an immediate and significant increase in reading speed using colored overlays.” (Applied Psychology Unit, Cambridge University )
On undertaking the initial research and reading, I became convinced that by making small changes to the ways that we present content in the classroom, we could potentially make significant improvements to the lived experience of all students.
Through researching both primary and secondary sources, it became apparent that colour in slide design & teaching materials is not purely an aesthetic choice but a significant factor in the cognitive processing, emotional state, and academic performance of neurodiverse students.
Colour has the potential to affect individuals sensorially and psychologically, influencing moods, behaviours, and performance (Kurnaz, Meric, Pursun, 2022).
Cooler colours, such as blue and green, the most frequent naturally occurring colours, were widely preferred, with blue, in particular, being considered beneficial. Green is, for some people, seen to be associated with relaxation, reducing stress and facilitating communication. In a study of 549 students, green and blue were among the most frequently chosen colours across various disability types (Kurnaz, Meric, Pursun, 2022).
Warmer colours, such as red, orange and yellow, whilst often associated with increased energy and creativity, may also contribute to excitement, aggression and concentration issues.
My own primary research bore out examples of some of these findings, but also identified the key problem of black text on a stark white background being described as “emotionless”, “flat” (Interviewee 1) and “boring” (Interviewee 3). For some neurodiverse students, stark white backgrounds are “painful” to look at (Interviewee 2), leading to eye strain and a loss of focus during long lectures.
Conversely, blue backgrounds were described as “comfortable” and “softened” (Interviewee 2), making eyes feel more relaxed compared to white.
Softer tones of cream, beige and off white were also seen as more approachable and welcoming (Interviewee 1), reducing the “glare” felt by stark white. Grey was considered to have a positive, calming impact, although comments indicated that it could also be interpreted as “drab” or “boring” if not combined with engaging imagery (Interviewee 2).
Additionally, the shade or tone of the colour used is also seen to be important. Whilst high contrast is often sought for clarity, “luminous” or fluorescent tones (like bright yellow or intense purple) can be overpowering and exhausting for the eyes (Interviewee 1).
The research also indicated that the colour of slides and teaching materials is not a single solution in its own right, with data from interviews and surveys indicating that colour must work in tandem with layout, and environment to support neurodiverse learners, with key factors as follows:
Colour should be used judiciously – whilst colour is useful for highlighting key information and changing the pace of a lecture, too much colour can be confusing and difficult to read.
Neurodiverse students often prefer information delivered through infographics & diagrams, rather than text.
Images must be relevant; irrelevant imagery can be irritating and distracting to neurodiverse brains that seek clear meaning.
Based on the research to date, I would make the following recommendations:
Use cream, off-white, or soft blue/grey backgrounds to reduce eye strain and minimise headaches for students with sensory processing issues.
Prioritise cooler tones such as green and blue for focus, to create a calming learning environment that aids concentration and reduces anxiety.
Use bold or different coloured text only to highlight the most important “keywords” or summary points.
Keep the text on each slide to a minimum, supporting with infographics, relevant imagery and verbal delivery.
Co-ordinate screen brightness with room lighting. Harsh room lights combined with bright screens can cause significant discomfort for neurodiverse students – installation of dimmer switches in classrooms.
Build a relationship between the University and The Irlen Institute via their practitioners in the UK, to build a strategy and implementation plan for making coloured overlays and glasses available to students with sensory processing issues.
Test the option of presenting in “night shift” more, or with reduced screen brightness.
Work with the IT and disability teams to implement self correction tools for students to change the background colour of the delivered content on their laptops.
In conclusion I would say that this Action Research Project has shown me that incorporating colour into teaching and learning materials for neurodiverse students is like adjusting the volume on a radio. A stark white background is like a high-pitched, constant static that makes it hard to hear the music (the content). Using soft, cool colours and clear visuals acts like a filter, removing the “noise” and allowing the student to focus clearly on the melody.
The research confirms the fact that colour needs and preferences are complex and highly individual, requiring us as institutions & educators to employ a more creative and adaptable approach to the design of teaching and learning materials.
As I embarked on this project, my initial feelings were of excitement around a topic I felt was really interesting, and confidence that it had the potential to drive improvements in teaching and learning by making relatively small changes to both on screen and physical delivered content.
However, as I began to delve into the secondary research, my feelings turned to those of overwhelm, having realised that I had opened Pandora’s Box, and stumbled into the depths of a much more complex issue than I had, at first, realised.
Regardless, believing this to be an important, and potentially experience changing piece of research for our students, particularly those exhibiting neurodiversity, I set about reading as many sources as I could find and making a step by step plan to fulfill the requirements of the brief.
My first breakthrough was in setting up each of the required blog posts, giving it a title, and dropping in relevant research & references to each post as I went. Doing this helped me manage my own expectations of what was required, in the timeframe available. Subsequent workshops and the group tutorials with Andrew and my peer group also really helped me to understand that I was probably overthinking the project in the context of the course and credits available. In essence the emphasis should be on the quality of what I was producing, not necessarily simply how much time I had spent on it!
Having set up the survey, completed the Ethical Action Plan, and identified my interview participants, I began to implement the practical elements of ensuring that these were completed in sufficient time for analysis. With hindsight, there are several aspects of these research methods that I might have carried out differently.
I gained really valuable specific insight into the individual challenges faced by neurodiverse participants from the interviews, so a few more of these would have assisted further. The validity of the survey, although useful, was somewhat hindered by the sample size – if I were to embark on a similar project in the future, I would probably endeavour to encourage some students to complete the survey whilst I was in the classroom with them, and find improved methods of distribution to the wider UAL community.
I continued to build content into each blog post, with further reading and research, adding in the primary research categorisation & analysis over the Christmas break. This allowed me the time to think, re-write and edit each post as necessary, leaving time available to develop the final presentation.
I am very happy with the end result. The research confirmed many of my initial thoughts, and although limited by the number of respondents, the analysis provided enough information to drive out some compelling conclusions and recommendations. It has also made me aware that this is a topic which warrants further consideration and research, incorporating discussion around related issues such as colour blindness, environment & lighting, and the direct impact of colour on reading fluency, recall and attention span. It indicated that the University would need to work closely with 3rd Party contributors such as the Irlen Institute, in order to develop a clear strategy and action plan for incorporating specific tools and techniques into teaching and learning content.
The whole process has inspired me to build my lecture and seminar material in different ways, adding in, not just more colour itself, but more visually creative ways of increasing student engagement, in a more holistic and mindful manner that eliminates cognitive and sensory inequality.
Finally, I would really like to thank all of my tutors, in particular, Andrew Slatter and John O’Reilly, for their support, sharing of knowledge and insight throughout this Action Research Project.
I’d also like to thank many of my fellow students on the course, particularly those in my tutor and workshop groups, those who participated in the original intervention which inspired it, and those who contributed to the interviews and development of the survey, including Kuljeet Sibia, Eva Feld, Ignacia Ruiz, Jasper Zheng, Claire Undy and Ian Holmes.
What is the working title of your project? Also write a few sentences about the focus of your project. Topic: Impact of colour in teaching materials Research Question: “How can colour be used in teaching materials, both digital and analogue, to improve student lived experience, attention and attainment?” “Colour is a power which directly influences the soul” Wassily Kandinsky (artist) Focus: Impact on learning potential with considered use of colour for both neurodiverse and neurotypical students. Psychological impact of colour on student wellbeing – anxiety levels, confidence, retention of information. Impact of colour in teaching content on attention span, active participation, engagement. Impact of colour inclusion on teaching community, methods & workload. Initial data on disability will be taken from UAL’s own Equality, Diversity and Inclusion Report 2024, to set the scene and develop an understanding of the broader context of the study, throughout the UAL teaching & learning community. Detailed primary research, including a survey, and interviews, will focus the content on a more specific analysis of learning needs for both neurodiverse and neurotypical students, in terms of how on screen colour affects their ability to learn and retain information. Concluding statements will give recommendations for improvement in learning and teaching materials.
What action(s) are you planning to take, and are they realistic in the time you have (Sept-Dec)? I have adjusted teaching content to include different colour slides in classes Oct/Nov on the current Sustainable Design Management Unit (BSc Fashion Management 2nd Yr). Information on planned research has been shared with current cohort of 35 students, direct feedback to be obtained via Unit Evaluation Survey. A further questionnaire will be shared to the wider Fashion Business School community via the FBS newsletter and BSc Fashion Management Course Page on Moodle. Semi-structured interviews will be carried out with a small group of individuals across the teaching and learning community. Mixed methods – raw quantitative data from survey will be analysed to interpret patterns and preferences, supported with qualitative data, and examples from interview participants.
Who will be involved, and in what way? (e.g. colleagues, students, local community…). Note, if any of your participants will be under the age years of 18yrs, please seek further advice from your tutor. Staff & students of UAL. No participants under 18yrs.
What are the health & safety concerns, and how will you prepare for them?
Kurnaz, A., Meric, A., Pursun, T., (2022) ‘An Investigation of Colour Preferences of Students with Special Needs’. Available at: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1363978.pdf (Accessed 16.12.2025)
Wilkins, Arnold. J., (2003) ‘Reading Through Colour: How coloured filters can reduce reading difficulty, eye strain and headaches’. Available at: https://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://visualstress.info/book2.pdf (Accessed Jan 2026)
Irlen Filters that are worn as glasses or contact lenses and are designed to reduce stress on the brain as it tries to process light and visual stimuli.
Coloured overlays for reading are not a solution for all reading problems, only those that are caused by the brain’s inability to process light efficiently.
Colored overlays are not a solution for dyslexia. Colored overlays are a solution for a specific type of visual processing problem. Dyslexia is a language processing problem, not a visual processing problem, so colored overlays are not an appropriate solution for dyslexia.
People with Irlen Syndrome and Visual Stress have a hyperactive visual cortex. The part of their brain that processes visual information works too hard to try and make sense of the visual signals it receives. Symptoms of Irlen Syndrome and Visual Stress are visual distortions like words moving or blurring when trying to read, and physical discomfort like eye-strain or headaches.
People who suffer from visual processing problems like Visual Stress and Irlen Syndrome have brains that are hyper-reactive to visual stimuli, high contrast, and bright lights. Looking at black print on a white page causes excessive activity in the visual cortex, and this over-activity causes a variety of physical and perceptual symptoms that can lead to reading difficulties, and even affect reading speed and comprehension.
Colored overlays reduce the amount of contrast on the page, making it less stressful for the brain to look at. By reducing over-activity in the brain, colored overlays can reduce or eliminate visual distortions like moving or blurry print and improve comfort, reading speed, comprehension, and ability for sustained attention when reading.
Key facts: Irlen Syndrome Affects:
55% with head injury, concussion or whiplash
12-14% of the general population
46% of individuals with reading and learning difficulties
33% with ADHD
33% with autism
Appendix 5 The 7 Principles of Universal Design
The 7 Principles of Universal Design
Principle 1: Equitable Use
The design is useful and marketable to people with diverse abilities.
Principle 1 Guidelines
The following guidelines underpin Principle 1:
1a. Provide the same means of use for all users: identical whenever possible; equivalent when not.
1b. Avoid segregating or stigmatizing any users.
1c. Provisions for privacy, security, and safety should be equally available to all users.
1d. Make the design appealing to all users.
Principle 2: Flexibility in Use
The design accommodates a wide range of individual preferences and abilities.
Principle 2 Guidelines
The following guidelines underpin Principle 2:
2a. Provide choice in methods of use.
2b. Accommodate right- or left-handed access and use.
2c. Facilitate the user’s accuracy and precision.
2d. Provide adaptability to the user’s pace.
Principle 3: Simple and Intuitive Use
Use of the design is easy to understand, regardless of the user’s experience, knowledge, language skills, or current concentration level.
Principle 3 Guidelines
The following guidelines underpin Principle 3:
3a. Eliminate unnecessary complexity.
3b. Be consistent with user expectations and intuition.
3c. Accommodate a wide range of literacy and language skills.
3d. Arrange information consistent with its importance.
3e. Provide effective prompting and feedback during and after task completion.
Principle 4: Perceptible Information
The design communicates necessary information effectively to the user, regardless of ambient conditions or the user’s sensory abilities.
Principle 4 Guidelines
The following guidelines underpin Principle 4:
4a. Use different modes (pictorial, verbal, tactile) for redundant presentation of essential information.
4b. Provide adequate contrast between essential information and its surroundings.
4c. Maximize “legibility” of essential information.
4d. Differentiate elements in ways that can be described (i.e., make it easy to give instructions or directions).
4e. Provide compatibility with a variety of techniques or devices used by people with sensory limitations.
Principle 5: Tolerance for Error
The design minimizes hazards and the adverse consequences of accidental or unintended actions.
Principle 5 Guidelines
The following guidelines underpin Principle 5:
5a. Arrange elements to minimize hazards and errors: most used elements, most accessible; hazardous elements eliminated, isolated, or shielded.
5b. Provide warnings of hazards and errors.
5c. Provide fail safe features.
5d. Discourage unconscious action in tasks that require vigilance.
Principle 6: Low Physical Effort
The design can be used efficiently and comfortably and with a minimum of fatigue.
Principle 6 Guidelines
The following guidelines underpin Principle 6:
6a. Allow user to maintain a neutral body position.
6b. Use reasonable operating forces.
6c. Minimize repetitive actions.
6d. Minimize sustained physical effort.
Principle 7: Size and Space for Approach and Use
Appropriate size and space is provided for approach, reach, manipulation, and use regardless of user’s body size, posture, or mobility.
Principle 7 Guidelines
The following guidelines underpin Principle 7:
7a. Provide a clear line of sight to important elements for any seated or standing user.
7b. Make reach to all components comfortable for any seated or standing user.
7c. Accommodate variations in hand and grip size.
7d. Provide adequate space for the use of assistive devices or personal assistance.
Appendix 6 ARP Action Plan
Ethics form – DONE
Draft activity plan/brief – SURVEY LAYOUT DONE
Run pilot with PGCert classmates – DONE
Get feedback – DONE
Refine activity – DONE
Draft in colleagues to observe – DONE
Run activity – DONE
Capture outputs – DONE
Reflect on ARP – DONE
Collate feedback – DONE
Plan next steps – DONE
Presentation slides – DONE
Appendix 7 Key Primary Research Findings(survey)
Over 80% of respondents were female.
Over 50% of respondents were between 18 and 25yrs old.
24% of respondents consider themselves to be neurodiverse, dyslexic or autistic, with 27% preferring not to say or disclose their neurodiversity or neurotypicality. 45% identified themselves as neurotypical.
69.5% of respondents stated that screen colour was somewhat or extremely important.
82.6% of respondents stated that ease of reading was somewhat or extremely important.
Bullet point format and interesting imagery were also key in terms of importance.
A white background screen was preferred by 39.1% of respondents, with the second preference being blue, preferred by 21.7% of respondents.
For text colour the overwhelming preference was for black.
Respondents indicated that their preferred colours made the content easier to read (29%), and made it easier to concentrate (29%), whilst some indicated that their preferred colour made it easier to retain information (12%). Fewer respondents indicated that their preferred colour reduced their level of anxiety, minimised headaches or increased energy levels.
Highlights individual nature of preference – in delivering inclusive content all preferences need to be taken into consideration.
Other potential improvements to on screen lecture content captured in comments:
“If I need to listen to the person speaking -> don’t put text I need to read behind them (even if it’s the same words) because its distracting. Preferably there would be diagrams or images without text behind the lecturer whilst they speak so I can listen to them and pay attention fully.”
“Making PowerPoint presentations more accessible, less small text, less on screen text in general if possible. Which depends on context – live presentations sshould have less text and be more driven by what is said by the presenter. If the PowerPoint is for personal viewing then the opposite as there is no audio. The Golden Rule: Ask yourself: “Does this slide help my students learn, or am I using it out of habit?” If it doesn’t add value, skip it! Less is more”
“Depends who writes the content but generally more pages with less content on each page rather than trying to have loads of text on a single page”
“Good layout/design of the screens, focused more on the visual and minimal text. Also bright coloured backgrounds are very jarring and difficult to take in, so presenter should keep the on-screen visual design clear, uncluttered, minimal, with text only for impact/necessity, with considered visuals/images/graphics and colours that are less jarring (e.g., red, yellow, orange is difficult whereas cooler colours such as blue or grey seems easier to take in).”
“Important information or key words in a different colour to emphasise it”
81% of respondents felt that black text on a white background was easy or very easy when reading books, journals and articles, however, 18% found this challenging.
81% of respondents felt that the availability of tools such as coloured perspex overlays, printing on coloured paper, tinted glasses, etc would (24%) or may (57%) improve their work/college or university experience.
Other comments captured:
“Colour is useful to highlight key information. It can help change the pace of slide content to make it a bit more interesting and stimulating. A lot of colour can make slides look messy and hard to read – so colour needs to be used judiciously.”
“Havent really thought of these things before. But I do find highlighters or using different coloured feltpens useful when taking notes and categorising my ideas”
“Colour theory is very important. In creating learning resources it’s important to consider how considered background colour can be complimented with colour of text. And generally how complimentary colours affect mood and attention”
Appendix 8 Key Primary Research Findings (interview transcripts)
Colour Coding Keyand Corresponding Comments
White text on black slide
“It feels rather formal, doesn’t allude to it being anything related to a creative source”
“bit boring, doesn’t make me super excited”
“quite like it, good for a summary, where using bullet points, not too much text”
“feels a little like the darkness is preparing my eyes for the next slide”
“it doesn’t have a visual impact”
“the white is too bright”
White text on colour slide
“It’s much more engaging, but a bit too busy in terms of where my eyes are trying to go”
“More relevant to the course, as part of a creative industry”
“More playful, it grabs my attention”
“is a bit much, if the image was relevant to what the lecture was about I think it would be more interesting”
“I can read the text but I’m looking at, paying more attention to, the background”
Black text on white background (underlined)
“I saw it and I yawned”
“I’m so tired, and looking at the white screen makes it quite alarming how hard it is to concentrate”
“Everything blends into itself, there’s no excitement around the content”
“I don’t really feel it’s playful in any way to engage me in the content”
“there’s no emotional response [to this colour combination]”
“I do feel, sometimes, that these screens are just so bright, my eyes hurt from just looking at them”
“easy to read and understand, but for long periods, 3hr lectures, it impacts my attention”
“Emotionless, flat”
“Perceive as giving information, but it doesn’t trigger any other response”
“I’d read the text but would probably struggle”
“I’d be bored, would lose focus”
Black text on light blue background
“This has softened it, it feels more comfortable, I feel more willing to read the prompts”
“My eyes feel a little bit more relaxed already, the black text feels easier to read”
“The blue makes the content feel a little more important”
“I like that better, I feel that it’s almost clearer”
“It feels more comfortable, just easier to absorb”
“Slightly luminous tone to it, so it hurts my eyes, it’s not a warm blue”
“Colour is very specific, [people] see different hues in colour, someone else might see it as calming, or [another person] as a trigger”
Black text on yellow background
“The yellow brings a bit more vibrancy, is not as comfortable to read as the blue, although better than the white”
“Yellow is also good”
“We associate yellow with happiness”
“Too overpowering for me”
Black text on purple background
“Purple is good, makes it easier to separate each bullet point”
“Again a fluorescent undertone, I’m squinting to try and read the words”
“Just like the blue, has a slightly cool undertone to it, making it easier to read, improving clarity”
“The colour is more positive, joyful”
Black text on a cream background
“Better than the fully stark white background, but still quite bright on your eyes”
“softer, more approachable and a lot calmer”
“the beige undertone is a lot easier, more welcoming, brings me into the writing”
“In comparison to the previous three colours, this feels like it has lost a little bit of energy”
White text on a darker blue background
“OK, but a little less clear than white text on a black background”
“The blue, like the cream, has a more calming effect on my eyes”
“It looks corporate, although I feel the colour isn’t as complementary, it feels less energised”
White text on a dark grey background
“it’s not my favourite, but good, easy to read”
“similar to blue & cream, it has a positive impact on me”
“feels a bit drab, dull, dry”
General comments bold black text
“don’t really fully understand what the terms neurodiverse and neurotypical mean”
“from the lectures that you’ve been showing us recently, I really like it [colour], it reduces eye strain”
“if staring at my laptop screen for so long, I always put my own laptop on night mode so that it gives it an orange tint”
“I’m normally exhausted [after a lecture], but I don’t know if that’s necessarily to do with the colour of the screen, or just concentration generally”
“I’m more on the neurodiverse side of things, I need to see things infographically, in shape or diagram form”
Transcript 1
Transcript 2
Transcript 3
Appendix 9 Neurodiversity Design System
Appendix 10
Excerpt from Meliksetyan, G. The Psychological Meaning of Colour in Design: A Semantic Review
Contextual Perspectives: Recognizing the limitations of universal associations, thesetheories emphasize the situation-dependent nature of color meaning.○Color-in-Context Theory: Proposed by Elliot and Maier (2012), this influential theoryintegrates biological predispositions and social learning but adds a crucial layer: context. It arguesthat the psychological meaning and subsequent effect of a color are fundamentally dependent on thephysical and psychological context in which it is perceived. The same color can evoke vastlydifferent, even opposite, responses depending on the situation. For example, red might enhanceattractiveness in a romantic context but impair performance in an achievement context where itsignals failure or danger. Similarly, blue might signal trustworthiness on a corporate logo butindicate spoilage on food (Elliot et al., 2007).The evolution of these theoretical frameworks reveals a clear trajectory away from simplistic,universal claims about color meaning towards more sophisticated models. These newer modelsacknowledge the complex interplay between innate biological factors, extensive learning throughcultural and personal experience, and, most critically for design, the specific context of perception.The Color-in-Context theory appears particularly pertinent, offering a framework to understand theoften-contradictory findings in the literature and aligning well with the inherently contextual natureof design practice, where the function, audience, and surrounding elements drastically alter how acolor is deployed and interpreted (Design Studio UI/UX, 2024) (PDF) THE PSYCHOLOGICAL MEANING OF COLOR IN DESIGN: A SEMANTIC REVIEW. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/391197119_THE_PSYCHOLOGICAL_MEANING_OF_COLOR_IN_DESIGN_A_SEMANTIC_REVIEW [accessed Jan 13 2026].
How important are the visual aspects of the learning materials that we provide, and what can be achieved by using colour to enhance these visual materials in pursuit of higher student attainment?
Reading is an essential tool for learning, and with up to 10% of the population affected by dyslexia (Brain Sci, 2021), amongst other sensory learning difficulties, it is imperative that we at UAL, offer enhanced learning material to enable those students affected, to flourish.
“Dyslexia is a learning disability of neurobiological origin whose main characteristics are difficulties with accurate or fluent word recognition. It is also characterised by poor spelling and decoding abilities which results in problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience.” (Brain Sci. 2021, original source unavailable).
Colour is more than just aesthetics. It plays a pivotal role in guiding learner attention, aiding memory, and influencing mood. According to Arnold J Wilkins (Reading Through Colour, 2003), the use of “coloured overlays on text can improve reading….and has been shown to reduce fatigue and increase fluency” (Wilkins, 2003)
The following study examines whether and how colour enhances understanding, retention, and performance among students, drawing on interdisciplinary findings from cognitive psychology, educational design, and neuroscience.
Context:
The aim of the study, in the context of my academic practice is to find ways of using colour in learning materials to enhance and improve the lived academic experience of my students, both neurodiverse and neurotypical. The impact will be measured through student feedback via the unit evaluation in Block 1 of this Yr 2 Cohort on the BSc Fashion Management.
Inclusive Learning: The problem:
The Neurodiversity Design System, which combines neurodiversity and user experience design for Learning Management Systems states that:
“cognitive fatigue can be increased by high contrast (black text on white background). Learners with an oversensitive visual cortex, visual-perceptual disorder, and those with dyslexia related difficulties (Irlen Syndrome) will experience processing issues identified as part of their neurotype”.
Research & Reflection:
Research carried out (Jakovljevi ́c, T.; Jankovi ́c,M.M.; Savi ́c, A.M.; Soldatovi ́c, I.;ˇColi ́c, G.; Jakulin, T.J.; Papa, G.; Kovi ́c,V, 2021) tested electroencephalography, heart rate variability, electrodermal activity and eye movement, in school age children. The aim was to establish the relationship between physiological parameters and colour modifications in text and backgrounds, in children aged 8-12yrs, which resulted in the identification of several key factors:
Dyslexic children have longer reading duration and fixation when reading on coloured background overlay.
Turquoise background, turquoise overlay and yellow background colours are beneficial for dyslexic readers.
Dyslexic children have higher values of reading power while reading with a purple overlay.
The results drove the conclusion that both pastel and intense background/overlays are beneficial for reading in both dyslexic and non-dyslexic children.
The Irlen Method has pioneered the use of tinted/coloured overlays and filters, demonstrating “improvement in reading fluency, comfort, comprehension, attention, and concentration while reducing light sensitivity”. Irlen Syndrome itself, is not dyslexia, or a reading problem specifically; it is an “information and sensory processing” problem, known as a visual, or perceptual processing disorder, caused by a core light sensitivity, which affects the way that the brain reacts and synthesises information, contributing to sensory overwhelm. Sufferers of Irlen Syndrome may experience poor comprehension, misread words, strain & fatigue, nausea, headaches, concentration issues, lack of motivation, writing difficulties and low self esteem, and a whole host of other problems, often being mistaken for other conditions like ADD or ADHD, and medicated unnecessarily.
Personal experience within the practice of teaching BSc and MSc Fashion Management students has indicated that many of my students, and in particular those who may have Individual Support Agreements in place, exhibit examples of these problems and could benefit from adjustments to the way we share information. Having already instigated automated captions for all of my lectures, changed formative assessment structure, implemented more structured content and comfort breaks, with significant improvement in attainment yr on yr, I think that a more considered use of colour in learning materials could be the next step in assisting all of my students to deliver their best work.
In order to understand the impact of colour on memory, research carried out in China by Khan & Liu (2020), tested the impact of colour on students learning memory, of those exposed to yellow coloured learning materials (papers) vs. those exposed to simple white learning materials. Statistical analysis of the data collected revealed that the group with yellow paper significantly outperformed the control group, with learning materials on white paper, evidenced by significantly higher recall after 2 weeks, suggesting that coloured materials have the potential to enhance long term retention. In this particular instance the learning in question was language, but the theory could be equally well applied across other subject matter.
In the process of developing this intervention, and sharing my ideas with a group of my peers from the PGCert cohort, the theory was borne out by one in our group of 4, who stated that, the instant I changed the on-screen slide colour from white to light blue, it reduced her level of anxiety and introduced a feeling of calmness.
Irlen identified that use of coloured tints and overlays could help 12-14% of both gifted and average neurotypical students, and 46% of neurodiverse students ie. those exhibiting reading problems, dyslexia and learning difficulties. This would lead me to believe that making some small changes, for example, the background colour of slides presented on screen, could have wide ranging positive implications for a great many students.
The Von Restorff Effect (Ballinger, 2024), which is “the proven psychological theory that the more something stands out from the crowd the more likely it is to be seen” also has the potential to come into play here. Hedwig Von Restorff discovered in an experiment that when constructing a list of words, the one that’s different is able to be recalled more easily. The implications of this could be the use of colour in highlighting text, or using coloured text to emphasise key points of learning. The following example of the Von Restorff Effect in practice, uses colour and contrast to attract attention, and a slightly bizarre example to illustrate a point (keeping distance from one another during the Covid-19 pandemic), rendering it memorable, distinctive and worthy of discussion.
Solution:
According to the research, visual stress can be greatly reduced with the addition of colour, with the choice of colour for text maintaining a high contrast ratio with a coloured background eg. black text on a pastel colour background, or white text on a deeper coloured background.
It appears that there are benefits for neurotypical learners too, in reducing eyestrain when experiencing cognitive fatigue. Changing the visual appearance in this way has the potential to improve learning retention and ease anxiety related fatigue.
Building on the UDL Guidelines, the intervention will focus on designing options for Perception, Interaction, Expression and Communication, more specifically, the use of colour to:
Support opportunities to customise the display of information.
Optimise access to accessible materials and assistive and accessible technologies & tools.
Use multiple media for communication.
Use multiple tools for construction, composition & creativity.
Implementation:
I have started to test this approach in my current lectures, in order to gain some feedback from the current cohort of first year students on the BSc Fashion Management course at LCF, however, the results have been hampered by the term coming to an end.
I plan to introduce the technique of using colour in learning materials next term, capturing specific evidence of the results within the unit evaluation survey. It would be very easy to implement more widely, and has the potential to generate positive impact across the student population.
Conclusion:
Beyond cognition, colour promotes engagement. Warm tones, such as yellow and orange evoke energy and optimism; cool tones such as blue and green bring calm.
It is clear from the variety of secondary research studied that the introduction of colour into learning materials has the potential to:
Increase retention of information
Reduce cognitive fatigue
Improve fluency and speed of reading
Enhance learning for neurodiverse and dyslexic students
Reduce anxiety and facilitate feelings of calm
The limitations of time, and lack of primary research at this stage, however, have led me to understand that I am only just scratching the surface of the research required, and that this may form the initial stage of a much greater piece of research.
“Colour is a power which directly influences the soul”
It is very easy to be swept along in a society that stems from a highly colonised background, with the majority of those in positions of power being both white and male. Our UK House of Commons, for example, has just 14% of its’ population from ethnic minorities, and 40% female, lauded as the “most diverse parliament by race and gender” (Starmer, 2024) in its’ history. Critical Race Theory (CRT) draws on the understanding of a society shaped by racism which is endemic, systematic and unrecognised, leading to disadvantaged minoritised groups of individuals and implications for the wider society as a whole.
Bradbury (2020) crafts a policy analysis framework drawing on CRT and policy sociology, engaging a variety of different contexts, emphasising how policies can unintentionally support white privilege & power despite presenting themselves as neutral and fair.
Fig. 1 CRT Framework for Policy Analysis, Bradbury, 2020.
This highlights how a “one size fits all” policy approach may impact negatively on children or students who speak English as an additional language, contributing to lower expectations and attainment for these minoritised groups. It is clearly not just those who speak English as a second language, but anyone marginalised by race, ethnicity or nationality too.
As infants, we start life as a “blank sheet of paper”, affected and influenced, as we grow up, by layer upon layer of information, experiences, education, culture and affluence, through which our individual personalities and beliefs are formed. It was, indeed, heartbreaking to witness the moment when a group of schoolchildren learned about white privilege (Channel 4, 2020), otherwise explained as the absence of having to live with the consequences of endemic racism in society.
As the divisions between white children and the rest of the group becomes evident, the inequalities are realised, and the atmosphere amongst the group completely changes. It is a vivid reminder that I myself, sit in a position of privilege, and that my interactions in academic practice have the potential to generate an inclusive learning experience only when looked at through the pro-active lens of anti-racism.
In a Ted Talk on Diversity, Equity and Inclusion, Asif Sadiq reinforces this message by stating that the change has to come from education. However, given Sadiq’s example of his own son requiring additional support in school, how do we build the resources, both human and financial, to deal with the specific requirements of every individual? In a university environment, where we might have upwards of 130+ students in a room, how do we give our lecturers the tools to “adapt their teaching style according to each individual’s needs”? With this in mind, we must consider how the policies we develop and implement in everyday practice fight against the norms and stereotypes which are structurally embedded, in order to reduce inequalities of attainment and experience.
In looking for solutions and a way forward, conclusions would indicate that policy development must be anti-racist in its stance (race-aware, not race-blind or even race-neutral), include a diverse cohort of decision-makers, consider minoritised groups from inception, and identify and challenge disparities. We are, as Sadiq states, going to have to step out of our comfort zones, and build our own lifelong learning journeys to enable change in society, and in our teaching practice. Simply monitoring the data will never be enough to actively drive that change.
Resources
Bradbury, A., 2020. A critical race theory framework for education policy analysis: The case of bilingual learners and assessment policy in England. Race Ethnicity and Education, 23(2), pp.241-260.
Garrett, R. (2024). Racism shapes careers: career trajectories and imagined futures of racialised minority PhDs in UK higher education. Globalisation, Societies and Education, pp.1–15.
